Professor Howard Zinn’s purpose for writing “A People’s History of the United States”

1. In a nutshell, Professor Howard Zinn’s purpose for writing â€Å"A People’s History of the United States† was to offer a history of the United States (from the first settlers all the way to the mid ­1970’s at the time of publishing) that did not outright lie or â€Å"sugar coat† our country’s past. Furthermore, Zenn seeks to avoid manipulating our history as a means to calm the reader, albeit causing controversy when his book first debuted.Additionally, in the word’s of the author himself, â€Å"If history is to be creative, to anticipate a possible future without denying the past, it should, I believe, emphasize new possibilities by disclosing those hidden episodes of the past when, even if in brief flashes, people showed their ability to resist, to join together, occasionally to win. I am supposing, or perhaps only hoping, that our future may be found in the past's fugitive moments of compassion rather than in its solid centuri es of warfare.†By this, I’m confident one of his goals was to demonstrate the impact of the human spirit and how even though â€Å"A People’s History of the United States† is filled with the sad reality that conflict is always present in our society, it also shows that sometimes good triumphs over evil and that maybe history doesn’t have to repeat itself once more. 2.The thesis for pages 1 ­11 of, â€Å"A People’s History of the United States† essentially revolves around the statement, â€Å"It is enough to make us question, for that time and ours, the excuse of progress in the annihilation of races, and the telling of history from the standpoint of the conquerors and leaders of Western civilization. † This is a concise summary of pages 1 ­11, stating the claim of Zenn’s underlying argument in regards to all the information presented in the first chapter. 3. Howard Zinn held the now ­mainstream idea that traditional (school) history

Music And Fine Arts Education Essay

â€Å" If Music and Fine Humanistic disciplines are non elements in instruction as a nucleus topic, so much of what we know as civilisation has been a error † ( Harvey, 2002 ) ! Curricular integrating has become an progressively of import constituent for many school reform enterprises, peculiarly at the simple school degree ( Barry, 2008 ) . Why is this so? This is because many of the simple schools and some high schools have encounter jobs with pupils accomplishing acquisition and doing Adequate Yearly Progress, a statewide school study card system. Presently, the state is implementing national statute law designed to learn every kid to read, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 ( U.S. Department of Education, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to Darrow ( 2008 ) the thaumaturgy of music can lure a kid to pattern assorted reading related undertakings, frequently without the kid even being cognizant of the acquisition. In Elementary school pupils nationwide it can be found that the pupils a re falling short in accomplishing both reading and math literacy. Therefore, music is believed to be the first of the multiple intelligences that becomes functional in a kid ( Lee, 2007 ) . In a survey performed by Rauscher, Shaw and Ky ( 1995 ) , they found that listening to complex music helped to promote tonss on a coincident trial of spacial logical thinking. A figure of research workers have found that music can and does act upon the acquisition of nucleus topics. Some of the surveies revealed that although holding music in the background while analyzing did non deflect the acquisition but had neither a negative consequence every bit good. Other research workers have found that music is motivational in larning across the course of study. Harmonizing to Tucker ( 1981 ) , he reported that utilizing music in learning reading may heighten motive and abilities of kids, whether or non they are musically talented or intellectually above norm. Yet, another research worker found that popular music benefited pupils in that the reading of wordss of the vocals inspired in-between school pupils to encompass reading in a positive manner ( Cohen-Taylor, 1981 ) . But today one may happen many of the pupils listening to Rap music. Because of their acquaintance with the beats of blame, one can merely conceive of the power of motive to present the pupils to beautiful poesy and of outstanding poets. And if this is true for the reader, one can merely visualize what influences it can hold in larning Math and other topics. Since more pedagogues are going more cognizant of the many facets of how music integrating can heighten academic acquisition they are get downing to research its many possibilities. Harmonizing to Gullatt ( 2008 ) art instructors and non-content instructors should be given clip to be after together to guarantee that the integrating of the humanistic disciplines into the schoolroom is successful and meaningful to the pupils.Problem StatementsMusic is a powerful tool and resource that can be used for implementing larning schemes in the schoolroom today. Many instructors believe they are non qualified to learn a figure of related musical thoughts in their regular schoolroom scenes. Harmonizing to Bro gla-Krupke ( 2003 ) music plays a important function in schools today ; nevertheless, musical activities that have no focal point, except to entertain pupils, fail to utilize music as an built-in constituent in the instruction of schoolroom faculty members. Harmonizing to Barry ( 2008 ) a concern and booby trap of holding good intending efforts to implement art integrating may ensue in being a utile tool for learning other academic topics, but the value of music instruction wholly disregarded. Music Specialist may be found entertaining the pupils and non experience comfy learning outside their countries of subjects when it comes to incorporating music with other topics. Over the past decennary there has been an increasing guess about the possible cognitive and academic benefits of music for kids ‘s development today ( A?rnA?ec, Wilson, & A ; Prior, 2006 ) . This is because the new developments in music integrating has created an involvement among parents, pedagogues, decision makers and politicians likewise, as to its recent research surveies and possibilities of heightening and increasing learning accomplishment. The No Child Left Behind ( NCLB ) Act of 2001 has created a great argument among pedagogues, politicians, and the public sing the ability of music integrating to better the quality of instruction for the state ‘s young person and make academically achieving pupils ( Spohn, 2008 ) . Whereas, research workers Gouzouasis, Guhn, and Kishor, ( 2007 ) discusses really small research has been conducted and found to analyze the relationship between accomplishment in music and accomplishment in nucleus academic classs. Therefore, Does Music Integration enhances Academic Learning?Purpose for Literature ReviewThe intent of this literature reappraisal is to garner clear apprehension of related subjects for music integrating and academic acquisition. Hopefully in sharing and analyzing the current researched literature reappraisals, the theories, treatments and concerns that prevarication within the kingdom of instruction for music integrating in cross course of study acquisition will be cla rified for future research. In this reappraisal one will happen related stuffs that support theories of spacial logical thinking, how pedagogues feel about learning incorporate topics, and research facts and surveies that examines the different instructional methods used and consequences from music integrating and academic acquisition for K – 12 schoolroom scholars. This literature reappraisal will show current research for its readers on schemes and methods used that have been researched utilizing music integrating. These research surveies range from incorporating with Math, Reading and Foreign Language scholars and other nucleus topics that has been tested and proven to better academic acquisition. By looking at current research reappraisal, this allows the reader to garner information that may or may non back up the benefits of music integrating in the regular schoolroom. Other research workers like Brogla-Krupke ( 2003 ) province the music course of study in the instruction of kids integrated in the school ‘s academic countries have been found to be promoting. In the undermentioned literature reviews one will happen brief treatments on the surveies and research presented to back up the benefits of music integrating and how betterment in the accomplishment of academic acquisition was successfully obtained. The Arts Integration schemes p rovide chances to include multicultural positions in the course of study, and to associate a school with the larger community ( Martorelli, 1992, p. 44 ) . The writer of this literature reappraisal wants to show relevant information for future research probe on the subject of music integrating and academic acquisition. So what functions and benefits come from music integrating?Functions and Benefits of Music IntegrationLong before the academic effects of arts-based became a focal point of public attending, a widespread belief existed that art experiences contribute to single moral and emotional development ( Brouillette, 2010 ) . Research in the humanistic disciplines and encephalon development have found related connexions in the countries of music, dance, ocular humanistic disciplines and theatre in assisting pupils become focal point and more attentive while larning. What is Music Integration? Although there are many definitions it can be merely defined as music blended with anot her topic of larning country. Harmonizing to Lim and Chung ( 2008 ) Integration humanistic disciplines instruction, of which music instruction is a portion, is low-level to other intents: bettering expressive ability and developing creativeness and communicating. The All right Humanistic disciplines are defined by Gouzouasis, Guhn, and Kishor, ( 2007 ) as dance, play, music and ocular humanistic disciplines, which are identified as the nucleus topics. Music has been associated with feelings of being safe, accepting and trusty relationship and, as such, can be a replacement for relationships ( Laiho, 2004 ) . Harmonizing to Barry ( 2008 ) he describes integrating as a two manner theoretical account in which music and other capable countries are included and honored in a meaningful that provides a rich, comprehensive acquisition experience that cross cultural and single differences, ensuing in a productive and motivative experience for scholars and for instructors. Why music? Harmonizing to Wiggins ( 2007 ) based upon the ideas of specializers in the field of music and literacy, the integrating of music into literacy learning scenes may help in linguistic communication development while advancing musical development at the same clip. Music is all around us. Music influences our feelings and emotions, makes us happy or sad or prepares us for a jubilation of life or decease. Bing able to learn any topic with an integrating subject provides an chance to use what has been taught or learned. On the other manus Cheong-Clinch ( 2009 ) brings out the point that when it comes to immature people, merely listening to popular music can act upon their stripling demands. By this it merely means that it gives intending to the immature stripling ‘s mundane life when they are seeking to merely get by with mundane experiences. Music and Academic Learning Literature Reviews All of the undermentioned articles have been researched and written within the past five old ages. In continuing to look into the strengths and the failings, and comparing the similarities and differences of methods and the doctrines, one will happen that all of these research writers may hold that music has some signifier of benefits when incorporating with other academic course of studies. Harmonizing to Regelski ( 2009 ) the failure of music instruction as practice to do a matter-of-fact difference for persons and society that is noticeable and noteworthy therefore creates a â€Å" legitimation crisis. † This merely means that the claims on music presented within the schools have really small influence on the effects and benefits that many claims are weakened. Although music is available for listening, people do non merely profit from listening to music and happen this to be valuable but most people attend concerts, operas and engage in the acquisition and pattern of music are found to be ordinary common people ( Peterson & A ; Kern, 1996 ) . However, the philosophy of Classical music ‘s liberty from life its contemplation apart from day-to-day life at rare and reserved times, peculiarly in concert halls and the similar ( Regelski, 2004 p. 133-89 ) creates a spread between it and the music of mundane life where, as mentioned earlier, ‘appreciation ‘ is seen through empirical observation in the utilizations or maps served by music of any sort ( or, of many sorts ) in the life well-lived. Given the noncritical belief in the demand to understand before one can properly contemplate and appreciate good music traditional instruction methods and stuffs used in the music categories are therefore predicated on a construction of the subject course of study theoretical account that teaches the elements of music constructs and other proficient footings, and background information from music history, theory, and literature is someway believed contributes to properly inform and develops appreciative hearers ( Regelski , 2004 ) . The doctrine behind this is that people learn through their experiences. Good learning cleverly involves pupils experientially in musical job work outing at novitiate degrees and in ways that promote ongoing paraxial cognition and accomplishment ( Regelski, 2004, p. 76 ) . In looking at the relationship of music and personal societal demands music a can be concluded as being of value and profitable to larning. Writers Heilig, Cole, and Aguilar ( 2010 ) discourse the historical development and degeneration of ocular humanistic disciplines instruction from Dewey ‘s progressive epoch teaching method. As this is read one will happen policies that focus on humanistic disciplines integrating and how the talk of incorporating more with nucleus topics. Policy considerations are offered for humanistic disciplines instruction and its hereafter standing within the public educational course of study ( Heilig, Cole, & A ; Aguilar 2010 ) . This might be problematic with the No Child Left Behind Act 2001 wants to concentrate merely on Reading and Math. The writer and research Gruhn ( 2006 ) takes a different attack to looking at why one should see a new foundation for teaching and understanding music. He agrees that the societal impact is an of import piece in schools today and that they play a valid portion in the acquisition environments. School ever reflects fluctuations in society caused by the cultural diverseness created by in-migration ( Gruhn, 2006 ) . Because of the societal issues within schools Gruhn ( 2006 ) feels the demand to reform that of music instruction in the schools. This poses the inquiry what is music? Music being categorized as a noun, harmonizing to the research workers Adorno ( 1970 ) , Eggebrecht ( 1995 ) , and Molienhauer ( 1990 ) defines music as immaterial and traditionally, it has been described as an aesthetic experience in the instrumentalist and the hearer that adds an incommensurable qualitative minute and gives music of import subjective qualities. The writer of this literature reappraisal goes on to state that music should be viewed, as have three parts. The three subdivisions identified music as a procedure that depending on the followers: 1 ) visual aspect in the class of history, 2 ) on the position of the hearer and 3 ) on the map of that music retains in cultural memory ( Gruhn, 2006 ) . His illustration of a choir pattern show that the choir member demands of the behaviours of a vocalist, in understanding that of cognizing the importance of warm ups, being able to execute assorted manners of music, being on clip and other countries. It is discussed how public pr esentation is cardinal to larning. Music is considered an action. Therefore, harmonizing to Gruhn ( 2006 ) so in music, excessively, moving musically in a communicative musical context manifests and farther develop musical apprehension. This is non like utilizing words but an look of non-musical thoughts when it comes to this type of apprehension. Harmonizing to Gruhn ( 2006 ) many civilizations do non hold common individualities, because there are a figure of musical plants people have non even heard of. A failing revealed by Livingstone and Bovill ( 2001 ) was that telecasting will replace reading and that digital media are already progressively of import: 80 per centum of kids have entree to a computing machine and the Internet. Before looking at an incorporate music instruction plan it is suggested that we look carefully at the music so that it does non go stereotype in presentation. From what we know today, so, we can non generalise that music enhances intelligence or causes long term benefits in academic accomplishment ( Gruhn, 2006, p. 13 ) . In our following research workers ‘ literature reappraisal by Darrow ( 2008 ) , the writer looks at music and literacy. He reflects on the issue that literacy is a concern of all pedagogues whether in the schoolroom as a non-specialist or humanistic disciplines specializers. It is widely believed that music acquisition, music reading, and music engagement enhance academic accomplishment, particularly reading and math ( Tucker, 1981 ) . This individual suggest that parallel accomplishments in music and reading include phonological consciousness, phonemic consciousness, sight word designation, orthographic consciousness, prompting system consciousness, and eloquence ( Darrow, 2008 ) . While the summarisation and comparing of accomplishments required for both literary reading and music reading make music and reading a natural tantrum, there is non yet a important sum of grounds to reap why or how this transportation of acquisition may happen ( Burtin, Horowitz, & A ; Abeles, 2000: Butzlaff, 2000 ) . In a recent survey, research workers found that a musically designed course of study assisted 2nd graders and pupils with specific larning disablements in reading to significantly better their accomplishments in word decryption and word cognition ( Register, Darrow, Standley, & A ; Swedberg, 2007 ) . Author Carmen Cheong-Clinch ( 2006 ) addresses the subject of how one can prosecute immature people in the academic utilizing the tool of music. She references the phase of adolescence as a clip immature people are detecting who they truly as they deal with much life alterations and challenges. Again, the inquiry comes up why music? The significance and importance of music to immature people seem to be correlated to their psychosocial development ( Laiho, 2004: Larson, 1995 ) . Harmonizing to Cheong-Clinch ( 2009 ) immature people can place with popular music. Many times immature people are found to be listening to music more so than watching telecasting. Other surveies performed by Cheong-Clinch ( 2006 ) , Standley and Hughes ( 1997 ) , Bygrave ( 1995 ) , and Wolfe and Hom ( 1993 ) back up the relationship between music activities and the development of larning procedures, reading, hearing and other general associated linguistic communication accomplishments. The methodological analysis used in this research took topographic point in two learning environments. One was specifically geared to serve immature immigrants who were in high school merely coming into the state and the other those who were found to be at hazard, because of drugs, behaviours and school dropouts. Based on the observations made by the writer Cheong-Clinch ( 2009 ) and the music healer while carry oning both plan, there was an indicant that the pupils made advancement in their societal and learning behaviours. Not merely did the plan aid in societal accomplishments but it besides showed to supply assurance for the pupils in their linguistic communication abilities through songwriting, vocalizing and the piquant conversations about their vocals ( Cheong-Clinch, 2009, p. 54 ) . The following reappraisal is an experimental survey written by Robert Legg ( 2009 ) the strengths and failing discussed here are centered the influence of music and linguistic communication acquisition. Although the Mozart consequence has been researched and studied before it is still bespeaking that music has a great influence on the accomplishment the kids can do. Cross curricular work of this kind was viewed as an first-class agencies of raising the profile of music amongst staff and pupils, and, it was hoped of promoting students to value vocalizing as a worthwhile, mundane activity ( Legg, 2009 ) . Harmonizing to Legg ( 2009 ) the tool used to prove the accomplishment of the topics was developed by the research worker in audience with the Modern Foreign Language section: it was used before the innovations started, as a pre-test, and afterwards, as post-test. The pupils were given 19 phrases to larn and fifteen proceedingss to finish their tests. The trial merely used a few inquiries and they were non the traditional standardize trial. Having more inquiries was thought by Legg ( 2009 ) would hold added more cogency to the research that was performed. Researcher Kelley ( 2009 ) discusses the importance of sing the acquisition of musical signifier. He states that Fink ‘s incorporate class design provides a manner to set hopeful theory into the world of pattern ( Kelley, 2009 ) . In a thesis reappraisal by Brogla -Krupke ( 2003 ) describes how the usage music schemes can be used to heighten and better academic acquisition. With Collins and Platz ( 2010 ) they approach their research from that of the humanistic disciplines and larning from the twenty-first century position. They discuss how the pupils are provided through the instruction of humanistic disciplines with fresh creativeness, chances for going critical thought and holding better apprehension of communicating while join forcesing with others. Yet other research workers like Moore and Ryan ( 2006 ) depict how an unconventional experiential schoolroom intercession gave rise to a assortment of larning penetrations and experiences for a group of direction pupils. The accent in this research was about the preparation the pupils received. The observations allowed these research workers to identity countries of larning that needed more preparation. The literature on educational development in general and on direction instruction in peculiar contains increasing calls for the debut of new inventions and active acquisition experience with formal schoolroom scenes ( Moore & A ; Ryan, 2010 ) . In fact, they argue that the under explored activities utilizing rhythm-involving music may merely assist to prosecute pupils in acquisition and acquisition accomplishments. The research survey treatment was on the high school degree of academic acquisition and accomplishment, every bit good as, the relationship with music engagement. Gullatt ( 2008 ) is similar in research to the research workers Gourouasis, Guhn and Kishor ( 2007 ) in that he excessively presents his literature reappraisal from the relationship between exposure to the humanistic disciplines and pupil accomplishment within the academic subjects but focuses more on the topic of math. He besides discusses the consequence of the economic system and how it has affected instruction with the budget cuts and its impact on the attending given to the humanistic disciplines as a significance for increasing acquisition. While research worker, Lee ( 2009 ) presents her survey from the point of view of the immature pupil larning English through the instruction of vocals and music activities. She feels music should be encouraged for all pupils ‘ acquisition. The motive for her survey was to assist them direct the natural behaviour into something more meaningful that will assist them understand the development of being intelligent through music ( Lee, 2009 ) . This literature reappraisal in, the writers look into how the significance of expressiveness through artistic experience, including music, physical motion, and ocular art, is reflected in the intents of Korean early childhood instruction, which aims at beef uping immature kids ‘s abilities and attitudes necessary for day-to-day life in the countries of physical, societal, emotional, cognitive, and linguistic communication development ( Kim 2005 ; Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development 1998 ) . Researchers Lim and Chung ( 2008 ) stated artistic look signifies non merely kids ‘s development of communicating through assorted art signifiers, but besides their development of creativeness through art activities. The national course of study provinces that â€Å" the immature kids have a better bid of showing their feelings and emotion through the assorted art forms-music, ocular humanistic disciplines, dance, motions, play than through verbal communicating † ( Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development 1998, 86 ) . Integration is another factor for instructors to choose the vocals with limited aesthetic quality because the rubric and text are given precedence over the music ( Lim & A ; Chung, 2008 ) . We urge instructors to intercede the kids ‘s musical acquisition by back uping kids ‘s attempts. Lim ( 2005 ) suggested implementing the undermentioned conditions: ( a ) facilitates the mediation procedure with tools and interaction with other pe ople ; ( B ) survey a little repertory of music in-depth instead than many pieces of music ; ( degree Celsius ) build continuity between the musical activity scenes ; and ( vitamin D ) learn musical elements in relation to the musical whole.Researcher Brouillette ( 2010 ) discuses that in executing humanistic disciplines, the emotional component is frequently evident, whereas the emotional constituent of a ocular art lesson maynon be clearly identified. However, when looking at this facet of how the humanistic disciplines helps develop pupils socially, this writer believes that there is still a big spread in 1s understanding and cognition of how the interpersonal interaction of art activities affect the development of the kids ‘s societal books in interaction with equals. How does one travel about supplying support for or against the fact that humanistic disciplines, particularly music integrating enhance academic acquisition? Some of the undermentioned methods may assist in h appening replies. Harmonizing to Collins and Platz ( 2010 ) the scientific method and peer-review procedure that the research workers use to carry on their surveies strengthen the quality of the consequences.In looking at research workers Pearman and Friedman ( 2009 ) , they discuss that developing the ability to visualise and closely concentrate on and listening aided the pupils in many capable countries, besides linguistic communication humanistic disciplines and music. Listening to music choices were found to be valuable because it allowed the pupils to visualise the form of the music. Having the chance of sharing increased involvement in music direction and proved to be one of the most good additions of this undertaking ( Pearman, & A ; Friedman, 2009 ) . An experimental survey by research worker Robert Legg ( 2009 ) ventures out to discourse the strengths and failing of the influence of music and linguistic communication acquisition. Although the Mozart consequence has been studied and researched many times there is some treatment that listening to music has a great influence on the pupil ‘s accomplishment. Cross curricular work is viewed as an first-class agencies of raising music acquisition and acknowledgment amongst staff and pupils and found valuable in mundane life ( Legg, 2009 ) . A more recent illustration is a longitudinal 3-year survey of â€Å" Learning Through the Humanistic disciplines † ( LTTA ) , a Canadian school broad humanistic disciplines instruction attack. This survey of more than 6,000 pupils and their parents, instructors, and principals revealed that 6th class LTTA pupils scored significantly higher on trials of calculation than pupils in control schools ( Smithrim & A ; Upitis, 2005 ) . The humanistic disciplines are frequently viewed as enrichment activities secondary to reading, composing, and math ( Rabkin & A ; Redmond, 2006 ) . However, if there are identifiable benefits and supports for the academic course of study within humanistic disciplines instruction, it is much easier to see the connexion and sweetening of the humanistic disciplines to learning and larning ( Gullatt, 2008 ) . Miller ( 2010 ) looks at the research of integrating from a qualitative survey with accent on the course of study and art public presentation. The research in this literature reappraisal looks at pupils in the integrating public presentation and the pupils ‘ apprehension of incorporate acquisition. The writers here argues that the pupils ‘ acquaintance with scholastic behaviours, understood by pupils as â€Å" making school, † impacted the pupils ‘ capacity to comprehend the coherence of the academic course of study and acknowledge the integrating of these behaviours and activities in the humanistic disciplines classs. Researcher Kelley ( 2009 ) discusses the importance of sing the acquisition of musical signifier. He states that Fink ‘s incorporate class design provides a manner to set hopeful theory into the world of pattern ( Kelley, 2009 ) . In a thesis reappraisal by Brogla -Krupke ( 2003 ) describes how the usage music schemes can be used to heighten and better academic acquisition. With Collins, and Platz ( 2010 ) they approach their research from that of the humanistic disciplines and larning from the twenty-first century position. They discuss how the pupils are provided through the instruction of humanistic disciplines with fresh creativeness, chances for going critical thought and holding better apprehension of communicating while join forcesing with others. Yet other research workers like Moore and Ryan ( 2006 ) depict how an unconventional experiential schoolroom intercession gave rise to a assortment of larning penetrations and experiences for a group of direction pupils. The accent in this research was about the preparation the pupils received. The observations allowed these research workers to identity countries of larning that needed more preparation. The literature on educational development in general and on direction instruction in peculiar contains increasing calls for the debut of new inventions and active acquisition experience with formal schoolroom scenes ( Moore & A ; Ryan, 2010 ) . In fact, they argue that the under explored activities utilizing rhythm-involving music may merely assist to prosecute pupils in acquisition and acquisition accomplishments. The research survey treatment was on the high school degree of academic acquisition and accomplishment, every bit good as, the relationship with music engagement. Gullatt ( 2008 ) is similar in research to the research workers Gourouasis, Guhn and Kishor ( 2007 ) in that he excessively presents his literature reappraisal from the relationship between exposure to the humanistic disciplines and pupil accomplishment within the academic subjects but focuses more on the topic of math. He besides discusses the consequence of the economic system and how it has affected instruction with the budget cuts and its impact on the attending given to the humanistic disciplines as a significance for increasing acquisition. While some worry about budgets others look at apparent fact of being held accountable. The research workers Mishook and Kornhaber ( 2006 ) expression at the answerability piece in the country of humanistic disciplines integrating. Although the humanistic disciplines have their ain subject country it is questionable as to what criterions they are being held accountable for? In this research the writers looks at the manner integrating is affected by the answerability. Harmonizing to Mishook and Kornhaber ( 2006 ) answerability and proving have caused frights in the community of humanistic disciplines instruction that schools will be required to put more clip and resources on the tried countries of the course of study, which include math and reading. The ground for this is because the No Child Left Behind ( NCLB ) 2001 Act has placed its concerns on the accomplishment of reading and math. Possibly this leaves one with a inquiry, should the humanistic disciplines be held accountable for what they teach even when it comes to integration? On the other manus, research workers like Diseth ( 2007 ) discusses and want to cognize more about Students ‘ rating and perceptual experience of the acquisition environment are considered to be of import forecasters of pupils ‘ attacks to larning. While Severiens, & A ; Wolff 2008 ) . These variables may besides account for discrepancy in academic result, such as in scrutiny classs, but old research has seldom included a comparing between all of these variables. This article investigates the factor construction of an stock list mensurating evaluation-perception of the acquisition environment. These factors were compared with tonss on the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students, and with the scrutiny classs of 248 undergraduate psychological science pupils. Exploratory factor analysis produced a measurement theoretical account consisting five evaluation-perception factors ( work load, presentation, perspective-integration, lector, and consequence ) . Structural equation patterning gave moderate supported to a theoretical account, in which evaluation-perception predicted pupils ‘ attacks to acquisition, which later predicted scrutiny classs. Hence, evaluation-perception affected scrutiny classs indirectly, via à ¢â‚¬Å" attacks to larning † . Additionally, the factor â€Å" workload-demands † contributed independently, as a forecaster of scrutiny classs, together with â€Å" surface † and â€Å" strategic † attacks to larning. These consequences, eventually, gave a footing for recommendations for course of study design and lecture. Kelley, B. C. ( 2009 Fink ‘s incorporate class design provides a manner to set hopeful theory into the world of pattern. The writer describes how this theoretical account helped him utilize more active acquisition experiences that non merely deepened pupils ‘ apprehension of musical signifiers but besides enabled pupils to creatively drama with those signifiers. [ ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR ] While research worker, Lee ( 2009 ) presents her survey from the point of view of the immature pupil larning English through the instruction of vocals and music activities. She feels music should be encouraged for all pupils ‘ acquisition. The motive for her survey was to assist them direct the natural behaviour into something more meaningful that will assist them understand the development of being intelligent through music ( Lee, 2009 ) . This literature reappraisal in, the writers look into how the significance of expressiveness through artistic experience, including music, physical motion, and ocular art, is reflected in the intents of Korean early childhood instruction, which aims at beef uping immature kids ‘s abilities and attitudes necessary for day-to-day life in the countries of physical, societal, emotional, cognitive, and linguistic communication development ( Kim 2005 ; Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development 1998 ) .The research worker Brouillette ( 2010 ) discuses that in executing humanistic disciplines, the emotional component is frequently evident, whereas the emotional constituent of a ocular art lesson maynon be clearly identified. Salcedo ( 2010 ) nevertheless, when looking at this facet of how the humanistic disciplines helps develop pupils socially, this writer believes that there is still a big spread in 1s understanding and cognition of how the interpersonal interaction of art activities affect the development of the kids ‘s societal books in interaction with equals. How does one travel about supplying support for or against the fact that humanistic disciplines, particularly music integrating enhance academic acquisition? Some of the undermentioned methods may assist in happening replies. Harmonizing to Collins and Platz ( 2010 ) the scientific method and peer-review procedure that the research workers us e to carry on their surveies strengthen the quality of the consequences. Evidence has suggested that music can better behavioural public presentation in several spheres, including intelligence ( Moreno, 2009 ) . So what are some of the theories behind the intent for music integrating?Theories Behind Music IntegrationAt the bend of the century, John Dewey was get downing his research at the University of Chicago, experimenting with a new attack to instruction that would go known as progressive instruction ( Goldblatt 2006 ) . Dewey ( 1938 ) theorized that kids need instruction that is reliable and allows them to turn mentally, physically, and socially by supplying chances to be originative, critical minds. â€Å" Many times instructors do non comprehend theory taught in instruction classs as peculiarly relevant to the world of learning. Theory is even sometimes seen as contrary to the demands and world of pattern. There exists in the heads of pupils hence, a disagreement between tea cher instruction and instructor pattern † ( Dolloff, 2003, P.23 ) . The ruling theoretical model for analyzing kids and music is cognitive psychological science. ( Samuelsson, Carlsson, Olsson, Pramling, & A ; Wallerstedt, 2009 ) . Dewey ( 1938 ) theorized that kids need instruction that is reliable and allows them to turn mentally, physically, and socially by supplying chances to be originative, critical minds. Dewey believed that humanistic disciplines are so experience, and that entree to humanistic disciplines instruction opens procedures of enquiry that expand a kid ‘s perceptual experience of the universe and create locales for apprehension and action ( Goldblatt, 2006 ) . This article is structured in the undermentioned manner. First, we will reexamine the research literature on kids and music, poesy and dance. This reappraisal will clear up how our theoretical position differs from that of the bulk of old research in the field. Second, the theoretical model of developmental teaching method will be presented. We will clear up and represent those tools that are utile to analysts in the survey of kids ‘s acquisition and to instructors in easing kids ‘s acquisition. Third we will depict how we have worked in our undertaking. Following, we discuss how the frame- work of developmental teaching method and our empirical surveies may lend to kids are larning within the humanistic disciplines. The ruling theoretical model for analyzing kids and music is cognitive psychological science. All the theories connected to musical development involve non merely psychological research on the person ‘s behaviour and larning per Se, but besides the influence of contexts and societal dimensions ( Samuelsson, Carlsson, Olsson, Pramling, & A ; Wallerstedt, 2009 ) . In the well-known coiling theoretical account of musical development by Swanwick and Tillman ( 1986 ) musical thought embraces the four beds of stuffs, look, signifier and value for discoursing kids ‘s composings. Gardner ( 1990 ) reduced the development within the humanistic disciplines to three stairss: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. While other research workers like Brogla -Krupke ( 2003 ) discuss that emotional intelligence, and people accomplishments, the importance of non simply larning basic facts but how to utilize the information learned, and the necessity of detecting connexions between the subjects provide support for incorporating music in other academic countries. Because of the huge sum of attending and involvement in understanding the function of music integrating many have turn to look into findings by Howard Gardner Researchers Gardner and Hatch ( 1995 ) , theory of multiple believe that the intelligences prompted increased popular and academic involvement in the possible benefits of an interdisciplinary course of study by spread outing the definition of human intelligence beyond the traditional accent on reading, authorship, and mathematics, to include a assortment of rational competences: lingual, intelligence, musical intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spacial intelligence, bodily- kinesthetic intelligence and the personal intelligence. Researchers Rauscher and Shaw ( 1997 ) indicated that music could heighten spacial concluding ability. Dooley ( 2010 ) states that contrary to the old, simplistic impression that art and music are processed in the right hemisphere of the encephalon ; with linguistic communication and mathematics in the left, recent findings along with co-workers that music is distributed throughout the encephalon. Another theory discussed by Owens and Sweller ( 2008 ) were that of cognitive burden theory. Cognitive burden theory discussed by Clark, Nguyen, and Sweller ( 2006 ) and Sweller ( 1988, 2003 ) is an instructional theory which enables us to utilize the cognition of human cognitive architecture to help in the design of direction. What methods were used to garner informations and stoping consequences and giving lucidity on the procedure of these surveies?MethodsOne interesting survey qualitative survey examined the integrating of humanistic disciplines and academic course of study at a acting humanistic disciplines school by concentrating on the course of study as it is understood and perceived by the pupils ( Miller, Bender-Slack, & A ; Burroughs, 2010 ) .. This survey is alone in that it centered on five pupils at an arts magnet school that had a huge scope of art categories. Their findings showed that their pupils were non able to place what integrating was in relationship to the academic categories. Therefore, it validated that teacher-centered instructional and music schemes were used in the category work allowing the pupils to understand what they learned versus how they learned it which was besides reflected in their behaviours. Regelski ( 2002 ) discuses the method of direction being that of the traditional, where the focal point does non centered on what the pupil has learned or able to make through the learning direction. The attending is given more to the inside informations that were presented in the direction. Harmonizing to Regelski ( 2002 ) the chief curricular inquiry confronting â€Å" school music † pedagogues is whether it is â€Å" the music â€Å" that is to be served that perpetuated for its ain interest, or whether music in the sense of a conceptual class that includes many music ‘s and therefore, music instruction exist to function the assorted societal demands that conveying both into being in the first topographic point. A qualitative four-stage clip series survey was designed to measure the effectivity of an humanistic disciplines partnership class in presenting the integrated humanistic disciplines in teacher instruction revealed that the function of the humanistic discipl ines specializer was critical in heightening conserves instructor ‘s humanistic disciplines larning and assurance in learning the humanistic disciplines in their schoolroom ( Andrews, 2006 ) . In a more current survey by Andrews ( 2006 ) reevaluate the effectivity of humanistic disciplines partnership class in presenting the integrated humanistic disciplines in teacher instruction. The information gathered was by edifices and looking at the assorted facets of thoughts employed. The consequences found that the instructors valued observations and peer acquisition activities because it developed more assurance in learning art in their categories. An inters proving statement found was to operationally the integrating of theory and pattern, the writer developed an humanistic disciplines direction theoretical account ( AIM ) , in audience with the specializer arts instructors, to supply internal consistence to the humanistic disciplines instruction and larning across several subdivisions ( Andrews, 2006, p. 451 ) . The research by Owens and Sweller ( 2008 ) method involved seven male childs from a high school, runing in ages of 11 and 12, took portion in this undertaking. The ground they were chosen is because they had experienced some signifier of music outside of their school scene. This allowed those making the research to analyse the pupils ‘ understanding to finish the job they were evaluated on. The pupils were given five proceedingss entire to analyze and finish the job. A written trial given within another stage of the procedure that had 50 jobs was given 3 proceedingss to finish. The analysis of discrepancy ( ANOVA ) with extraneous planned contrasts was used for all stages to prove the primary theoretical anticipation that the instructionally efficient integrated and dual- mode conditions would turn out superior to the split-attention status ( Owens & A ; Sweller 2008 ) . This research was experimental. Lim and Chung ( 2008 ) researched method involved looking at the policy for early childhood. Interviews were held with the instructors, managers, and college professors. They besides visited schoolroom for Kindergartners and early childhood centres. Moore and Ryan ( 2006 ) method was different in that they conducted a workshop for 17 representatives. The usage of beating circles, or similar attacks to presenting music and beat, has the possible to increase instructors ‘ repertories of pedagogical techniques, and to make fresh, fulfilling larning experiences ( Moore & A ; Ryan, 2006 ) . The consequences of this experience was positive in that the drumming circles produced untapped larning for advancing pupils to show their feelings and emotions and give everyone an chance for holding a power of voice. The methodological analysis that Cheong-Clinch ( 2009 ) used her plans was with English talking pupils who were in high school. The first group of pupils accompanied school from a lower limit of six month to a full 12 months. The 2nd group differed in the sense ; these immature high school pupils The aims of the plans in both learning environments were similar: the primary aimed to increase self-esteem and self-expression, and to construct peer relationships, although merely the first plan aimed to better participant ‘s linguistic communication accomplishments. The first survey plan provided grounds that advancement was accomplished within five hebdomads. The method for this undertaking was composed of six kids grouped together in little ensemble groups for the survey observation. The pupils although grouped, had the played the same musical instruments. The instruments that was in each group consisted of a tambourine, a trigon, boness, and moderate-sized clang cymbals. The beat forms played by the pupils were played together with the same vocal forms. By being cognizant of and detecting the immature kids ‘s ability to concept and retrace their acquisition experiences, the instructor ‘s lesson is based on kids ‘s universal, additive, and ordered development ; hence, the kids ‘s musical experiences are limited to playing simple instruments ( Andrews, 2006 ) . The undertaking integrated humanistic disciplines by including ocular art, music, play, and motion for immature kids to As an incorporate humanistic disciplines instruction in partnership with music, ocular humanistic disciplines, dramas, and motion, early c hildhood music instruction fails to pull on cognitive and artistically ambitious facets of experience. Whereas, Brouillette ( 2010 ) looked at the impact arts integrating would hold on pupils in classs one through four socially. Interviews were conducted with the instructors to place what societal impact had occurred with utilizing art integrating. Harmonizing to Brouillette ( 2010 ) when asked about the nonacademic effects of humanistic disciplines integrating, instructors tended to get down with observations about how the humanistic disciplines lessons had affected the schoolroom civilization. There are some commonalties in the above mentioned methods of research. Although the processs may change, one can cognize that through quantitative and qualitative survey and research common forms are clearly identified in the research experiences. Although the methods varied in the above research one can see that most of the above methods were similar in garnering their informations. The methodological analysis that was consistent for these researches was composed of interviews, observations and based on some type of public presentation in measuring the music facet of the integrating. In desiring to understand and clear up why this might be the instance throughout these surveies, it might be helpful to look at the history of integrating.History of IntegrationAs Dewey ( 1902 ) argued, the cognition of the capable affair and immature kids ‘s lived experiences are non two separate entities, but a continuum. In order to appreciate the function of the humanistic disciplines in the present PK-12 academic course of study, one must observe the function that the humanistic disciplines have played in the history of instruction ( Gullat, 2008 ) . In general, research on music in early old ages instruction can be 23conceptualize in footings of research on ‘music for kids ‘ or research on ‘children ‘s music ‘ . Traditionally, research on vocals for kids has dominated and this research mirrors the strong grownup influence on kids ‘s musical activities in preschool ( Jordan-Dearborn and Nelson 2002 ) . Darby and Lateral ( 1994 ) cite two chronological events that led to modern believing about the humanistic disciplines in instruction. First, research workers began their position with Horace Mann in the late 1800s, saying that Mann demanded that ocular humanistic disciplines and music be taught in the common schools in Massachusetts as an assistance to the course of study and an sweetening to larning. Second, they noted that Dewey posited the correlativity between direction in the humanistic disciplines and knowledge to be positive, which had a profound consequence on course of study determinations of the clip in many locations. Social issues on larning in music have historically been conceptualized from different theoretical point of views. Within this model one differentiation is made between ‘vertical interaction ‘ ( between children/pupils and adult/teacher ) and ‘horizontal interaction ‘ ( among equals ) ( Olsson 2007 ) . Researcher Kratus ( 2007 ) states it so clearly when said â€Å" Music instruction must happen ways to both maintain up with the altering musical civilization and continue the best of our musical yesteryear †Variables for Music Integration and Academic LearningAlthough instructors are acutely cognizant of discrepancy in pupils ‘ literacy demands, many are diffident precisely how to back up these demands in the dynamic schoolroom ( Tobin, & A ; McInnes, 2008 ) . This research undertaking reports discusses grounds from Grade 2/3 schoolrooms in which instructors differentiated direction in a assortment of ways to profit all pupils. In peculiar, instructors provided extra staging for fighting literacy scholars by offering a bill of fare of tiered work merchandises, adept tutoring and extra supports. Some variables that can be considered are as follows. Can music act upon pupil larning? Is at that place some charming connexion that can assist better academic tonss and larning? Can Non-Music Specialist, every bit good as, Music Specialist be confident to learn music integrating and cross curricular lessons? Does the emotional facet of music integrating develop societal connections for larning? What does this music integrating mean to all involved? Does Music affects the behaviour and causes an consequence to better larning? Can good communicating and coaction accomplishments be indispensable to an integrating plan?DrumheadMusic has ever been a portion of the homo ‘s mundane universe. The known phrase that Music is Universal tells the reader that music is an built-in portion of the human civilization ( Salcedo, 2010 ) . .Its influences capture our emotions, inspire running and motion to a fetid round, and yet motivates in off that requires no thought. This powerful tool is st ill being researched and studied, it affects are clearly supported in bettering academic acquisition. Countrywide concerns about utile and helpful ways for academic reforms are deliberately looking at the possibilities of music integrating for bettering academic tonss. In order to appreciate the function of the humanistic disciplines in the present K – 12 academic course of studies, one must observe the function that the humanistic disciplines have played in the history of instruction ( Gullatt, 2008 ) . Besides research workers Heilig, Cole, and Aguilar ( 2010 ) were able to link the No Child Left Behind Act 2001 back to Dewey as the idea of music integrating has evolved in the instruction sphere. Learning through the humanistic disciplines provides pupils the chance for building significance of content related stuff through the usage of the ocular, dramatic, and musical humanistic disciplines while larning in the humanistic disciplines gives pupils the exposure to specific accomplishments gained through direction in these art signifiers Gouzouasis, Guhn, and Kishor ( 2007 ) . Although there are many music instructors who may regularly integrate content countries within their schoolrooms, they may or may non try this signifier of integrating with intent to make so. This struggle between intrinsic and instrumental or incorporate curricular attacks has become a dominant issue in art instruction that deserves attending from many positions ( Brewer, 2002 ) . But the fact remains that K – 12 pupils all across they state is neglecting to go literate in math and reading. This has become apparent in our appraisals and the execution of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 that requires every kid to go literate in math and reading. Educators realize that the intellect draws from many experiences and research supports the fact that music could heighten and edify many academic subjects ( Brogla-Krupke, 2003 ) . Harmonizing to research worker Samuelsson, Carlsson, Olsson, Pramling, and Wallerstedt ( 2009 ) instruction and acquisition for kids in preschool, kinde rgarten and primary school have relied upon the originative topics in doing kids cognizant of the universe around them and of their ain creative and artistic competencies – even though emergent reading, composing and mathematics have recently been seen as more of import. The articles above all support some signifier of music integrating as holding some benefits to heightening acquisition. If they do non, they besides mention that there were no negative findings from the integrating used in their instructional procedure. The bulk of the research articles in this literature reappraisal trades with music integrating and academic acquisition accomplishments in the acquisition of a linguistic communication and cross course of study larning. With the research that has been done on incorporating the humanistic disciplines we raise inquiries on how effectual this procedure will be. Music entirely can authorise pupils with existent universe communicating advantages ( Salcedo, 2010 ) . We may happen statements that there is no difficult grounds to turn out that integrating works. But one can one conclude that music integrating in this literature reappraisal found support that enhance academic acquisition? As an pedagogue of the twenty-first century acquisition clip is of kernel to go originative, concerned confederates and devoted professionals that are willing to travel the excess stat mi to actuate and bring forth strong academic scholars utilizing whatever tools it takes. Even though a assortment of research workers may happen incorporate acquisition to be a weak nexus to linking topics, research supports music as a critical connexion between the academic ( Brogla -Krupke, 2003 ) . The many researches and probe on the course of study and instructional clip for humanistic disciplines instruction revealed that music and ocular art instruction for kindergarten to fifth class remained by and large the same since 2001 ( Spohn, 2008 ) . But in taking a expression at music integrating and academic larning the schoolroom instructor and music specializer both play an of import function in showing effectual integrating plan. Harmonizing to Brouillette ( 2010 ) states that every instructor may non get the hang the proficient accomplishments of e ach humanistic disciplines subject, but all instructors should be able to utilize humanistic disciplines based schemes to further their pupils ‘ societal emotional development. Therefore, integrating of the humanistic disciplines into the academic subjects may be one avenue and experience that prepares pupils for academic success and the workplace of tomorrow ( Brogla -Krupke, 2003 ) . Harmonizing to the writers Young and Kim ( 2010 ) the current educational reform policy discourse takes for granted the cardinal function of utilizing informations to better direction. In decision these literature reappraisals have a common yarn of focal point, that is, they are centered on the influence of music in our lives in some signifier. This validates that Music integrating can be considered as a factor in heightening academic acquisition. Whether one looks at the apprehension of music pattern and the benefits of being exposed to it, our societal connexions, the demand to reform its foundations to act upon acquisition, to prosecute those who are at hazard or instruction and learning linguistic communication to one finds that there is one tool that can link the common togs together and that tool is Music. In decision these literature reappraisals have a common yarn of focal point, that is, they are centered on the influence of music in our lives in some signifier. This validates that Music integrating can be considered as a factor in heightening academic acquisition. Whether one looks at the apprehension of music pattern and the benefits of being exposed to it, our societal connexions, the demand to reform its foundations to act upon acquisition, to prosecute those who are at hazard or instruction and learning linguistic communication to one finds that there is one tool that can link the common togs together and that tool is Music

Developing Education in Saudi Arabia Research Paper

Developing Education in Saudi Arabia - Research Paper Example Religion trained in this way is also a mandatory subject for all university learners. As a result, Saudi Arabian youths lack the education and methodological skills the private sector requires" (Al-Ahmed, 2010). This Education System has stifled analytical thought, and as a result, the education curriculum does not favor advancement and resourcefulness; both of which are important to the development. This education system also focuses on the Arabic language so much that the English language is not giving any importance; thus the students find it difficult learning in the English language, in higher education. Therefore, something needs to be done to change the focus of education from the traditional Saudi techniques of memorization and rote education mainly in religious teachings in Arabic towards encouraging students to analyze and issue-solve as well as creating a worldlier and vocationally based literacy system that can only be taught in English. For this to be achieved, the Engli sh language needs to be mastered first. Company background (Al-wahhab, 1970) says that in Saudi Arabia, children aged 3–5 years go to kindergarten. On the other hand, attendance of nursery schools is not mandatory for enrollment of first grade of primary schools. Pre-schools are not part of the official education system. Some privately owned nurseries have come up with technical and financial help from the government. In accordance to Saudi Arabia’s government data, 100,714 children (51,364 males and 49,350 females) were in pre-primary education in 2007. The average enrollment rate was 10.8% in total; 11.1% boys and 10.4% girls according to UNESCO. This shows that there... This paper stresses that effective learner centered methods of teaching usually has positive results in student outcome. Teaching the English language in both primary and secondary will give a positive result if technology is used. Research indicates that computer technology can help support learning and is especially useful in developing the higher-order skills of critical thinking. This report makes a conclusion that this suggests that students can benefit from technology-enhanced collaborative learning methods and the interactive learning process. The integration of technology in teaching the English language and all other subjects in the English language will make the learning process interesting; in that the learners will be intrigued and eager to use technology in learning. The curriculum will be installed in the computers in the English language; to enable learners do private studies and practice reading on computers that will help in pronunciation and spelling even without the help of the teacher. Technology will also help fasten the realization of improving students’ results in higher education and other levels of education, as well. I would recommend for all recommendations of this report to be implemented immediately so as rectify the situation in the country’s higher education. The author of the paper says that the changes will also affe ct the general performance of all other subjects in they are followed in the teaching of the various subjects. There is a need for change, in the educational system, in Saudi Arabia.

Answer the 4 Questions in 1 or 2 paragraphs each. (Questions listed in Assignment

Answer the 4 Questions in 1 or 2 paragraphs each. (Questions listed in Order Instructions) - Assignment Example Examples are Germany and Sweden. 2. Social responsibility is a duty that needs to be done to society. Ethics on the other hand â€Å"refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues† (Santa Clara University). Organizational stakeholders are those entities that have interest in an organization which could include the stockholders, employees, government regulators, general public, funding institutions, international monitoring agencies and anybody who has an interest in the organization. Social consciousness today is generally driven by consumption and accumulation of wealth because the motivation why people do the things that they do is either to profit or to have something. 3. A corporation is an artificial being created by law â€Å"which permits a group of people, as shareholders, to apply to the government for an independent organization to be created, which then pursues set objectives, and is empowered with legal rights usually only reserved for individuals, such as to sue and be sued, own property, hire employees or loan and borrow money† (www.duhaime.org). Publicly held corporations issue stock certificates to be bought by the public to have an ownership in the corporation. The advantage of a corporation is that it could make additional revenue from the stocks it issued to its investors or stockholders. It also has a limited liability or its liability is limited only to the business. Its disadvantage is that it is difficult to manage and is prone to unethical business practices. Managing a corporation can be tough and complex because of its sheer size especially today when corporations are global in reach. It has to deal with many entities such as employees, government regulators, stockholders and competition. Corporations are also prone to ethical issues such as greed where

Philosophy-The Good Life and the Right Action Essay

Philosophy-The Good Life and the Right Action - Essay Example When we are alive death is not there and when death comes we are not there so where is the good or bad feeling about death. It is not wise to teach young to live well while old to end well since in same lesson one teaches live well and die well (Epicurus pars. 2-4). Epicurus considers religious practices and beliefs harmful since these lead one to disturbing thought of death and uncertainty of life after death (Wilson 274). Epicurus defines pleasures to Menoeceus in his letter. He says that desires are necessary for pleasures of life. These give health to body and tranquility to mind (ataraxia) which is highest pleasure obtainable where all emotional disturbances are removed and only simple needs remain. He explains that pleasures are not in the costly things or sensual pleasures of body, it is absence of pain and trouble in soul. A plain meal gives as much pleasure as a rich spread. A bread and water to a hungry man is divine meal. (Epicurus pars 6-9). He concludes that ultimate evi l is pain. It may be fear of death, fear of not being able to attain material wealth. The ultimate good is pleasure. Wilson (274) presents Epicurus’ view that postpone immediate pleasures to attain higher pleasures. Epicurus thus advised self-discipline. Epictetus’ views on good life and right action: Epictetus and other stoics felt that nature is rational and orderly. Our individual natures are part of universe so living in agreement with nature (homologia) is good life (Long 163). Epictetus and other stoics stated that a morally good life with health, wealth and reputation is one’s choice because it suits to the nature more than the life equally moral but full of poverty, illness and exiles. For stoics the virtuous life is most important (Meyer 142). Happiness is not doing anything against the law of nature. Epictetus found god or actually demigod (daimon) and human being in partnership. His god is between human and fully divine (Long 163). For a good

Film Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Film Analysis - Essay Example The film has assumed its rightful place in the pantheon of American film for its sweeping depiction of the events surrounding the Civil War. Still, it’s clear that in keeping with Hollywood trends the film bends and shapes history to meet its narrative ends. This essay considers Gone With the Wind’s depiction of historical events and examines the effect they have on the film’s overall ideological message. One of the major areas in which Gone With the Wind demonstrates various degrees of historical accuracies is the articulation of African-Americans and the 19th century African-American throughout the film. When viewing Gone With the Wind the audience will become aware of the limited reference to the Ku Klux Klan and to the incendiary word ‘nigger’. Even as the original novel and screenplay contained references to these objects, they were removed by producer David Selznick after receiving the first copy of the draft. While one might not believe that t his indicates a significant historical inaccuracy as they represent instances of withholding information rather than articulating it in a wrong way, upon further inspection it’s clear that neglecting this material constituted a significant gap in the actual depiction of 19th-century Southern existence. After the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan demonstrated a significant presence in the Southern states. In response to screenwriter Howard, Selznick indicated, â€Å"A group of men can go out to 'get' the perpetrators of an attempted rape without having long white sheets over them and without having their membership in a society as a motive" (Leff). In these regards, it appears that the primary concern in implementing the Ku Klux Klan was it being referred to as an organization; one can surmise the fear was that references could be used as a motivation tool for existing Ku Klux Klan organizations. While these concerns held reasonable points, it seems clear that as they do hold this incendiary power, they also represent a significant historical inaccuracy. As civil rights concerns sought to conceal this aspect of American history, they may have actually contributed to understandings of 19th-century existence as not being as oppressive and organizationally challenging as in reality they were. In addition to Selznick’s deletion of reference to the Ku Klux Klan, the deletion was made to the word nigger. There were a variety of reasons behind this deletion and it wasn’t as clear-cut as many might imagine. After speaking with a broad array of black leaders Selznick determined that the use of the word would not be appropriate in the current social climate. One interesting side-note is that the film censorship board reviewed these concerns as well. In these regards, â€Å"The movie industry's censors had ruled only that "nigger" "should not be put in the mouth of white people† (Leff). One notes that the contemporary acceptable social incarnation o f the word nigger in media outputs also is divided along these race lines, indicating the power the film industry plays in shaping socially acceptable views and interactions regarding race. Still, similar to the deletion of the Ku Klux Klan, one must consider the extent that the deletion actually contributes to civil rights, or whitewashes a particularly troubling period in American history.

Find Wikipedia links related to Global economy Assignment

Find Wikipedia links related to Global economy - Assignment Example Therefore, this information needs to be enriched and updated. I have selected this as a Wikipedia search topic because it is an important element of the global economy. The growth of the world economy heavily relies on international trade, and I therefore find this aspect very important. In the modern globalized economy, the social and political impact of international trade cannot be underestimated. However, after reading the information on international trade on Wikipedia, little focus is given on key issues such as drivers of international trade, barriers and future prospects. In addition, the real impacts of international trade on various regions and countries are not fully highlighted. There is need to add more information on this topic focusing on the current drivers of international trade and the future prospects. As the world becomes a global village, economic globalization is a major driver of growth. Therefore, I have selected this topic since it directly affects our global economy. Wikipedia provides some information on the history and effects of economic globalization, but this information is not in detail. In particular, the impact of economic globalization on various regions and continents is not given. There is need to add more information on the past and emerging trends of economic globalization and their

History of psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

History of psychology - Essay Example In this aphorism, Nietzsche reveals that it is often very difficult for human beings to gain knowledge. In addition, people have a tendency of taking irrelevant things more seriously than the relevant ones. This aphorism is provocative because it challenges how man views the world and how the knowledge he has accumulated over many years cannot be of any use to him if he makes no use of it. Buber states that sin is something which man cannot do with his whole being because of the conflict which he has within him that what he is doing is wrong (Ventimiglia, 612). He further states that although man can choose to ignore the conflict concerning the sin that he is committing, he cannot completely forget the fact that what he is doing is wrong. This is quite different from the Christian understanding of sin because in Christianity, sin is caused by man’s very own nature and that in fact, it is stated the man was born with sin in his

Social Identity Theory and its Impact on People’s Reactions to Petrol Queue Jumping Essay Example for Free

Social Identity Theory and its Impact on People’s Reactions to Petrol Queue Jumping Essay Abstract This study aimed to investigate whether the social identity theory applies when it comes to peoples’ reactions to petrol queue jumping. It intended to ascertain whether participants demonstrated more reaction to those who jump queues, outside their own in-group (those who drive luxurious cars as opposed to non-luxurious car drivers). This study was influenced by a similar experiment conducted by Helweg-Larsen LoMonaco (2008) about queuing among U2 fans and their reactions to queue jumping. The experiment involved 49 participants who indicated they didn’t drive a luxury car, in a Melbourne metropolitan petrol queue, 26 of whom were males, aged 18-58 years (M =33:82; SD = 11. 26), in addition to this there were 23 females, aged 18-61 years (M =33.11; SD = 11.26). A questionnaire was utilized which included basic information as well as strength of identification with other drivers. Assessment of how upset queue jumping made them feel on a scale of 1-7 was also utilised. The results demonstrated that there was a reasonably high reaction rate, with statistically significantly results that proved drivers have a high level of social identification amongst other drivers within the same social class. The hypothesis that those who operate a non-luxurious vehicle will appear more distressed about queue jumping, when it is by someone driving a car of luxury as opposed to someone who is driving a car that is considered non-luxurious was supported. This helps support the existence of the social identity theory although the implications of this are that perhaps a broader definition of what ‘reaction’ to queue jumping needs to be developed, as well as using a larger sample size of people from several states or perhaps even countries. Social Identity Theory and its Impact on People’s Reactions to Petrol Queue Jumping It’s normal for most people to have a fundamental curiosity for finding out the causes of and therefore finding explanations for the behaviours demonstrated by humans. It is via this inquisition that queue jumping is explored, it is recognised as a human behaviour that most people will have to deal with in their everyday lives. It is generally known as the social phenomena where another person skips the line and rather then waiting at the  end of a queue. Queue jumping, as it is commonly known, has been researched in various cases including research within the animal community. Particularly in a study about wasps, which demonstrated that queue jumping may be seen as a rule for inheriting dominance (Bridge Field, 2007). This is not the sole study in regards to queue jumping, Milgram et al (1986) investigated the responses to queue jumping by assigning intruders to wait in queues (either single or multiple confederates) and they found that if there were more than one intruder it would provoke more of a reaction amongst the participants. They were also able to deduce from this study that those who preceded the intruders in the line felt more distaste for the queue jumpers as opposed to those in front of the queue jumpers (Milgram et al, 1986). This study demonstrates the social implications that queue jumping can have on an individual and the reason that so much weight has been assigned to the importance of researching queue jumping is because through this human interest, social theories, such as the â€Å"Social Identity Theory† have taken place. Social Identity Theory is a theory based on group membership as well as intergroup interactions that are based on self-categorisation, social comparison and the structure of a shared self-definition in terms of ingroup-defining properties (Vaughan Hogg, 2011). There are two dynamics to social identity that are attributing causality for behaviours, these include: social identity, which is the definition of self in terms of group membership as well as personal identit y, which is when one defines self in terms of personal relationships and traits (Vaughan Hogg, 2011). The main component to the social identity theory is the in-group/out-group differentiation which â€Å"is an inevitable characteristic of social life, and many social psychologists are still very busy with the issue of intergroup differentiation† (TaÅŸdemir, 2011). This study is relatable to other research particularly one executed by Thoitis Virshup (1997) in which groups of people were classified into â€Å"me’s and â€Å"we’s† and this is a clear representation for in-groups and out-groups. They discussed the notion that there is a sense of obligation and protection of one’s own ingroup as they are willing to empathise with those perceived to be similar to the individual as oppose to the â€Å"we’s† who were seen as dissimilar to the individual (Thoitis Virshup, 1997). In terms of human behaviour, social identity theory and queue jumping can be  closely interrelated as queue jumping has been was investigated by Helweg-Larsen LoMonaco (2008). In this study U2 fans where given a questionnaire whilst waiting in an overnight line to obtain floor spots at his concert the following day. The purpose was to reflect on their reactions to line-intrusion and the results showed that the queue is a social system and line intrusion was most upsetting to fans with a greater the commitment; the more dedicated the fan the more upset they were by queue jumping (Helweg-Larsen LoMonaco, 2008). In regards to queue jumping, there is much curiosity as to whether the social identity theory can be proven but little research. It is important to study reactions to queue jumping simply because of the social implications that are derived from this, as understanding how people function within a social in-group and how they react to an out-group can be vital. Through this knowledge one may able to apply this to discover solutions to problems such as peak hour traffic and how to best overcome this problem and avoid road rage and car-crashes. With that in mind the study below aims to investigate whether social identity affects how upset people feel about jumping a queue in order to purchase petrol. It is predicted in this study that those who operate a non-luxurious vehicle will appear more distressed about line intrusion, when it is by someone driving a luxury car rather that a non-luxury vehicle. This prediction is based on the social identity, assuming that the social identity theory can be demonstrated. Method Participants This study involved 49 participants who indicated they didn’t drive a luxury car, in a Melbourne metropolitan petrol queue, 26 of whom were males, aged 18-58 years (M =33:82; SD = 11.26), in addition to this there were 23 females, aged 18-61 years (M =33.11; SD = 11.26). Design The scheme utilised in this study was a one-way between-factor design. In relation to queue jumping it compared participants reactions from (LUXURY) whether the queue jumper drove a luxury car in which 24 where allocated and (NON-LUXURY) whether the queue jumper drove a non-luxury car in which 25  participants were allocated. As well as the main dependant variable being the measure of how distressed people felt about the queue jumping. Materials/Apparatus A questionnaire including background information (such as age; gender; number of years driving; type of car driven; how long they had been waiting in the petrol queue; whether they had waited in petrol queues before; whether they had ever witnessed queue jumping and when; and how much they usually paid for petrol) was employed. The questionnaire also evaluated their strength of recognition with drivers of non-luxury cars using Brown, Condor, Mathews, Wade and Williams’ (1986) 10-item measure of social identification (1 =strongly disagree; 7 =strongly agree). A total maximum score of 70 was possible on this measure. The questionnaire also implemented four items that each measured how distressed queue jumping (overall) made them feel (1=not at all upset, to 7=extremely upset). These items were revised versions of questions included in Helweg-Larsen and Lomonaco (2008) and a single measure/index (called REACTION) was calculated by summing the answers to these four items; with hig her figures indicating that people were more distressed by the queue jumping. A total maximum score of 28 was possible on this form of measurement. Procedure Ethics approval was first obtained from Deakin University Human Research Ethics Committee. Participants were then selected in the Melbourne metropolitan region petrol station where queuing for reduction of petrol prices happened frequently. In the first occurrence, four drivers were employed and were requested by the experimenter to act as experimental stooges. Two of these drivers were required to drive a luxury car: 1. a Maserati GranCabrio Sport; and 2. a 2012 model Porsche 911. One of these (luxury car) drivers was asked to take up a place in a petrol queue and allow queue jumping to happen, while the remaining driver was expected to jump the queue to the place immediately preceding to that drivers location in the queue. The other two drivers were asked to drive a non-luxury car: a Ford Fiesta or a Holden Astra. One of these (non-luxury car) drivers was also required to take up a place in the petrol queue and to allow queue  jumping to happen, while the other driver was asked to hop the queue in the place immediately preceding that drivers place in the queue. This meant that other people in the queue were open to the elements of queue jumping, that was being put up with, either among luxury car drivers or among non-luxury car drivers. The two queue jumping incidents were staged to take place at a distance of 10 cars from the petrol pumps, within the same day but separated by two hours in time (with queues stretching for numerous blocks). No other queue jumping, besides those associated with the current study, was observed to have taken place. Each of the participants in the queue behind the place where the queue jumping occurred was approached, after the incident, by one of four experimental research assistants and they were then asked to answer a questionnaire about queuing for petrol. At the conclusion of the study, all participants were debriefed and notified that they were permitted to contact the experimenter to gain access to results. Results Table 1 Mean and Standard Reaction to Queue Jumping of Luxury and Non-Luxury cars N Mean Standard Deviation LUXURY 2425.712.10 NON-LUXURY 25 23.60 2.14 TOTAL 49 24.63 2.35 The results from Table 1 illustrate that the total Mean was 24.63, where the maximum response possible was 28 for REACTION (as well as a maximum of 70 on the social identity scale) and the total Standard Deviation being 2.35. This indicates that the scores were relatively high in regards to the total amount possible. Using SPPS version20, a one-way between variable factor, ANOVA was carried out on the dependant variable of REACTION. Reaction was perceived bigger when the queue jumping was done by a luxury car driver (M=25.70; SD=2.09) as opposed to when it was by a non-luxury car driver (M=23.60; SD=2.14);(F(1, 48)=12.12;p

Effects On Prisons On Inmates Essay Example for Free

Effects On Prisons On Inmates Essay In the premodern times, societies used to mutilate bodies and cut off the heads of their culprits as a way of punishing the wrongdoers. However through a series of imperceptible measures of reform and development, punishment became less physical and less directed to the body of the offenders as people became more civilized and the prisons replaced the gallows. They stopped locking up the insane in asylums and began forms of treatment in institutions which had features of both hospitals and prisons, (Alan Gary 4). In most parts of the world, it is taken that a person convicted of serious crime should be sent to prison. Countries like the U.S, where capital punishment has not yet been abolished, a small but significant number of people are sentenced to death for what is especially considered as grave crimes, (Angela 3). The condition of prisons in the past was a nightmare to both the country as well as the society as they were damp, dark, and noisy. Prison wardens were brutal, poor diet and miserable portions of food were given to prisoners who were usually dressed in rags and suffered from many diseases which were not treated in time resulting to poor heath of the inmates. All these inhuman acts were however viewed by the wardens as a way of punishment to prisoners and therefore the prisons lacked a sense of reformation and charity as brutal acts were directed to inmates. According to (Thomas 602), Inmates who entered prison capable of moral improvement went back in to the society as impure, hardened and irreclaimable persons as there was no separation of sexes, classification of age and character therefore the convicted felon corrupted the untried and innocent prisoners. The unfortunate According to (Douglas Eric 2004), military officers in Iraq used dogs to intimidate prisoners. This was one of the several tactics they adopted even without approval from their seniors. They set strict limits on Red Cross access to prisoners and delayed them and accused them of, unannounced visit to the cellblock where the worst abuses occurred. There were also unreported incidents in which Iraq prisoners died after being questioned by American interrogators. Initially, imprisonment was based on punishing wrongdoers by inflicting suffering of the body. However, today’s imprisonment is not only an acute form of corporal punishment, but as a way of working on a persons mind and body through three areas which include: punishment, deterrence and rehabilitation. Prisons are intended to allow the society remove criminals from them place them into an institution for reformation, persuade them to avoid activities which are not beneficial, and in time become productive and law abiding citizens. However this well thought plan is not put in place due to the bad experiences in prisons hence the initial meaning of prisons is not realized by the society.   The main objectives and responsibilities of prisons are to safeguard inmates and maintain and improve welfare of everyone in it. Safe guarding involves keeping inmates locked away and controlled while having moments of recreation, education and counseling. However, it should be realized that psychological freedom depends on relations with others and that it is what the prisoners experience in this world, attain satisfaction and avoid its detrimental effects and not the education or counseling that decide how, if ever, they will emerge hence life imprisonment of an inmate does not add to his becoming upright. It should therefore be remembered that offenders are drawn from societies where possessions are related to personal worth unlike in prison where they are reduced to a level of bare possessions. Lockups, isolation, condemnation and rejection dehumanize prisoners resulting to psychological discomforts to prisoners. A Prisons aim is to cure and straighten the bad behaviors of criminals, however their record has not been encouraging and instead they are found to do more harm than good as the pains of jail confinement affect all prisoners in different negative ways most of which destroy a person instead of reforming his or her past bad behavior. The need to quickly adapt to prison life and withstand prison shock, exposure to a new culture and maintain outside links like keeping in contact with family and friends becomes frustrating to prisoners. The prisoners must therefore determine their way of passing time which affects the great deal and this end up affecting them psychologically. (Tosh 43). All these question the practice of life imprisonment of people since instead of reforming them they end up becoming worse both in their behaviors and their psychological status. Prisons therefore should be opposed to the idea of locking up people for the rest of their lives to avoid more harm than good to them. (Alison 14-19), came up with several negative effects on prisoners as a result of imprisonment which therefore opposes the idea of life imprisonment. First is that imprisonment can be detrimental both to physical and mental health of prisoners particularly with regard to long term and aged prisoners. Though many prisoners receive medical treatment in prison that would be unavailable to them outside, the health risk of imprisonment are high, uneven and specific to the condition of confinement. For instance, Scottish prisons have reported increased risk of HIV and hepatitis B and C transmission due to random sharing of injection equipment, tattooing and unprotected sexual intercourse. One study estimates showed that 36% prisoners had injected themselves intravenously and 12% had anal intercourse at least once while in prison. Post- traumatic stress is second where its psychological effects apply to certain group of prisoners who have shown symptoms of PTSD in medico-legal assessments. Such symptoms can have debilitating effect and are associated with difficulties in restoring and maintaining relationships. High level of anxiety, disturbed sleep, chronic depression, withdrawal and persistent feeling of being different from others and from previous self are described by clinicians working with former prisoners. There may also be physical symptoms like increased arousal, outbursts of anger, difficulties in concentration and hyper vigilance which are associated with increased alcohol and drug abuse.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Davis 322) in the third effect argued that inmates’ family and dependants suffer most. Despite considerable progress in understanding immediate and long term effects of separation trauma upon children, the impact of imprisonment upon the children of prisoners includes increased behavior disturbance and later delinquency, depression and feeling of low self esteem, behavioral disturbance and deterioration in school performance. Imprisonment and distance from crime is another effect which results to informal social control which suggests that social bonds like employment and marriage may inhibit offending. The imprisonment reduces opportunities to achieve relational and economic stability and therefore increase re-offending. Imprisonment also weakens the bonds and makes them difficult to re-establish hence suffering a significant source of legitimate or law abiding behavior and therefore imprisonment becomes part of the cycle of delinquency and crime. Another effect is on imprisonment and prison staff. Power especially overuse has dehumanizing effect as the culture of masculinity characteristic of prison staff bring a range of emotions and new emotion management techniques. Some of these techniques can lead to hardening, distancing and distrust. The process of adaptation could lead to enduring changes in their character and family life to preparedness to respond to danger. Imprisonments also result to some prisoners using sexual assaults and rape to make them feel powerful. Many of them use this assault to make them feel powerful than others and also express their manhood. The victims as a result are affected psychologically by being stressed, having nightmares and resulting to criminal activities and some forms of self destructive behaviour. The main solution to all these problems is to avoid inmate staying for a very long time in prisons since they tend to be harder than before and that certainly does not cure inmates rather it makes them more aggressive. Others is by ensuring good living and health conditions for the inmates, counsel them on how to handle people and relationships within and outside the prisons especially their families, provide good counseling facilities on the negative effects of using sex as a tool to feel good and demoralize other inmates. In conclusion prisons and punishments that are given to the prisoners do not necessarily bring a positive change of behaviour.In most cases they end up destroying the person as he or she becomes immune to the situations, therefore putting a person in prison for the rest of his/her life does not ensure behavior change and should therefore opposed. WORK CITED Angela Yvonne Davis Are prisoners obsolete? Seven stories press ISBN 1583225811, 2003 Alan Hunt and Gary Wickman Sociological jurisprudence Pluto press ISBN 0745308422, 1994   Douglas Jehl and Eric Schmitt New York times 21st May 2004 Joanne Mariner and Michael Bochenek punishment before trial Human rights watch org ISBN 1564322017, 1997 Tosh John The pains of imprisonment sage publications California 1982

The Concepts Of Participation In Governments Politics Essay

The Concepts Of Participation In Governments Politics Essay Participation is a concept that has been continually contested within the academic literature. The term has sparked a lot of debate and become an important concept relating to democracy and justice. Participation has been characterised as a vehicle for enabling citizen interaction and citizen power. Cornwall (2008) has described participation as a malleable concept, suggesting that the concept can denote itself to any situation in which people are involved. This however has created a significant limitation for the applicability of participation in natural resources management. Passive participation has increasingly become more evident within environmental management through processes such as tokenism and consultation. The following essay will examine and critically evaluate the different typologies of participation. Due to the variety of typologies proposed within the literature, only the frameworks proposed by Sherry Arnstein, Jules Pretty and Sarah White will be critically evaluate d. Environmental examples of participation will then be illustrated in order to determine the extent to which participation as a malleable concept is a strength or limitation for natural resource management. Sherry Arnstein provided one of the first models of public participation. Arnsteins Ladder of Participation was published in 1969, and sought to summarize the context of American public planning at the time (Bishop and Davis, 2002). Public participation and power sharing during this time consisted of an us and them approach (ref). At the centre of this philosophy, the ideals of democracy were broken. Arnstein suggested that power had not equally been distributed amongst all members of society (ref). As a result, Arnstein advocated for a framework in which the planning process adequately took into consideration the ideals and opinions of public citizens (Hayward et al., 2004). Arnsteins model comprised of a ladder, which metaphorically denoted levels of citizen participation. Each ascending level of the ladder, described as rungs, characterised a level of influential power citizens could have within the planning process (Arnstein, 1969). Arnsteins ladder ultimately consisted of eight rungs, therefore, describing eight typologies of participation. At the bottom of Arnsteins ladder is Manipulation. Arnstein described this level of participation as an unauthentic form of citizen participation. At this level of the rung, power graspers such as politicians were considered by Arnstein to deform the processes of public relations (Litva et al., 2002). Arnstein suggested that citizens were often placed on advisory boards with the purpose of authorities attempting to educate them about particular issue (ref). Arnstein believed that this level of participation was somewhat illusionary, in the sense that minority groups were often targeted and manipulated by power holders (ref). Much of the decision making powers still remain within the hands of authorities, and ethnic groups or special interest groups were simply forced to comply with the decision that had already been made (Whitman, 1994). The next rung on Arnsteins ladder is a form of participation labelled as Therapy. Therapy is advocated by Arnstein as another form of illusionary ci tizen participation. Arnstein suggested that authoritarians such as mental health experts, social workers and politicians view those as powerless as mentally incapable (Shier, 2006). Therefore, making citizens engage in sessions of therapy and reform. Arnstein suggested that what made this form of citizen participation illusionary is that an extensive amount of spotlight is placed on curing citizens of their existing perceptions or opinions (McDonald, 1988). Less effort is focused on changing the power struggles that exist within societies which shape the current perceptions and opinions evident within specific classes of people (ref). Infroming is the next rung on Arnsteins Ladder. Arnstein characterised this level of participation as a way of legitimizing public participation through informing people of their rights and responsibilities (ref). However, more often than never, the flow of information had predominately focused on officials providing citizens with information through the use of various media, newsletters and reports (ref). This one way flow of information often did not provide citizens with an opportunity to voice their concerns, or provide officials with any feedback (ref). Therefore, ultimately decreasing the level of influence citizens are able to exert upon planning projects. The fourth rung on Arnsteins Ladder is Consultation. This is arguably the first instance in which the concept of consultation had been used within a planning context (ref). To further legitimize the process of public participation, Arnstein suggested that the opinions of citizens needed to be taken into account (ref). Meetin gs, public hearings and stakeholder reports had become the most common forums for enabling consultation amongst specific groups of people. Consultation consists more of just asking citizens about their views. The process is only valuable if further work is undertaken to adequately change policy structures in order the meet the needs of citizens (ref). Genuine consultation would therefore, consist of systematic meetings which can provide an open loop of communication for both authorities and citizens (ref). The Partnership rung on Arnsteins Ladder portrays the redistribution of powers amongst citizens and authorities. Ideally, at this level of participation, the ability to make decisions is left in the hands of both the public and private sector (ref). Partnership can be seen to effective when the citizens themselves are equipped with resources and finances. This can help community groups to barter with politicians and allow citizens to have an influence over project plans (ref). Citizen power increases further up Arnsteins ladder, with Delegated Power being a form of participation where citizens dominate the decision making process (ref). In this instance, the public would have assumed full responsibility and power over a specific project or plan. Such a circumstance is often reached when the public themselves hold significant trump cards, and are prepared to take full accountability for the outcomes of a particular programme (ref). The ultimate form of citizen power is characterised b y Arnstein as Citizen Control (more). Arnsteins Ladder provides a good explanation of the interactions between citizens and authorities. Though simplistic, the model has become an influential pillar within debates surrounding participation. Arnsteins metaphorical depiction of participation as power has influenced policy processes across the globe. Participation as evolved as an important mechanism for stakeholder engagement and community involvement (ref). Since the publication of the model in the late 1960s, many criticisms regarding Arnsteins typologies of participation have arisen (Lane, 2005). Arnsteins typology attempts to highlight the differences between the powerless and the powerful. It has been asserted that Arnstein does not consider the obstacles which may become apparent in achieving different levels of participation (Arnstein, 1969; Collins and Ison, 2006; more). Arnstein (1969) has suggested that there are obstacles that need to be overcome by both the citizens and the authorities. Authorities for instance need to overcome obstacles such as racism and be willing to shift the scales of power (Arnstein, 1969). Citizens in contrast need a knowledge base and resources to facilitate a strong and collective standing within society (Arnstein, 1969). Critics have also suggested that Arnsteins ladder may not be a realistic representation of participation (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Arnstein categorised participation into eight rungs. In the real world however, there may be several more levels of participation occurring within society (Arnstein, 1969; Collins and Ison, 2006). Furthermore, the boundary between each category of participation may not be as distinctive as a step on a ladder (Arnstein, 1969). Tritter and McCallum (2006) have also suggested that Arnstein assumes that a hierarchical element exists within participation, which is in fact untrue. Arnsteins model suggests that citizen control is the ultimate goal for participation. Arnstein has neglected the possibility that often citizens may take part in the decision making process for a range of reasons. Arnsteins Ladder implies that if citizen control is not achieved, then there is an apparent failure within the participatory process (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Bishop and Davis (2002) suggest that this linear relationship between the levels of participation suggests a false sense of notions with regard to policies. As Bishop and Davis (2002) argue, Arnsteins Ladder suggests that variations only occur between the parties engaged with participation, and the policies that exist within societies remain constant and uninfluential. Arnsteins framework ultimately does not place any emphasis on the importance of communication, fe edback loops or the different perceptions that shape peoples views on a particular situation (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Nonetheless, Arnsteins Ladder provides us with the image that participation has contrasting degrees and levels within a planning context. It is therefore important to examine and understand other models of participation that are evident within the literature. Pretty (1995) has suggested that the concept of participation has different meanings for different groups of people. Pretty (1995) has put forward a more comprehensive framework to characterise participation. Prettys typology of participation consists of both detail and critique (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Pretty conceptualises participation within a local context, and takes into consideration the distributions of power and interests of stakeholders. Therefore, in theory, Pretty intends to offer different interpretations with regards to the concept of participation (ref). Pretty has developed a framework of participation that distinguishes between seven typologies. The first of these types is Manipulative Participation. In this typology, citizens have no decision making ability or voice (ref). The voices of citizens are often undermined, and the flow of information and communication is exclusive to a group of professionals (ref). The second typology is Passive Participation. Within this typology, authoritarians will often announce plans of a project or the outcomes of decisions that have already been established. Citizens only participate by being told about what has already been decided by the authorities (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Participation by Consultation is the third typology identified by Pretty. In this form of participation, citizens are consulted with by authorities (ref). Pretty notes that within this type of participation, professionals, experts and authorities will agree to hear the views of citizens and other interest groups; however, t here is no obligation for these views to be ultimately taken on board (Pretty, 1995). The fourth typology identified by Pretty is Participation for Material Incentives. Citizen participation is more active within this typology. Citizens participate by contributing resources or time in exchange for other material objects (ref). Pretty uses the example of farmers, whose fields and labour are used by experts during experiments or trials. The farmer however, remains inactive with regards to the project or programme. Yet, the farmer is still considered to be participating. Pretty acknowledges that once incentives are ended, the likelihood of any participation continuing decreases (ref). Functional Participation is described by Pretty as citizens forming groups in order to specific objectives of a project or plan (Pretty, 1995). Citizens once again only participate once all major decisions have been made by the professionals or experts. Local action is however, initiated by these citizen groups, therefore activating the practices and structures within neighbourhood communit ies (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Interactive Participation is where citizens venture in joint analysis. Pretty defines interactive participation as when multiple methodologies and several objectives are synthesized to create a common goal or understanding (Juarez and Brown, 2008). In this form of participation, citizens are given the power to maintain the practices and structures established within communities (ref). The last typology identified by Pretty is Self Mobilisation. In this, citizens are active participants, taking initiative to make changes independently to any external institution or group of experts (Pretty, 1995). Collaborative actions by citizens strengthen community bonds, as well as challenging any existing inequalities in power distributions (Pretty, 1995). Prettys classifications appear to cover most of the relevant forms of participation. Several limitations however are evident within Prettys description. Pretty suggests that low level of participations are enforced by external actors. Passive participation for instance, does not only occur in instances where people have been told what to do (ref). The participants themselves can increase the likelihood of passive participation due to significant shortages in their own resources (ref). For instance, citizens may lack a sound knowledge base about a particular issue. Therefore, even a well intended and interactive project may still fail due to insufficiencies on the part of citizens (ref). This further suggests that in some cases, a lack of participation cannot always be blamed on external actors or the design of a programme. Thus, the context in which participation occurs is a sensitive and significant variable to take into consideration (ref). Prettys typology also consists of several overlapping classifications. This makes it difficult to grasp a complete definition of participation as each typology is connected to the next (ref). For instance, the idea of manipulation is not exclusive to Prettys Participation through Manipulation typology. Manipulation is also manifested within other typologies such as participation for material objects or functional participation (ref). Pretty also assumes that a minimum amount of participation is occurring within each level of typology. This is problematic analytically. Pretty perhaps intended to only consider a framework in which participation is considered. In doing so however, a typology of non participation is lost in analysis. It had been argued that manipulation can be considered as a form of non participation (Hart, 1992 cited in Pretty, 1995). This however is problematic as even a small amount of participation can still influence the decision making process, making it impossibl e for non participation to occur (ref). Both Arnsteins and Prettys typologies are normative in nature, suggesting that the ideal form of participation is only located at the end of a specific spectrum (ref). These two models highlight the subtle effects of political affairs that are embedded within the participation debate. Questions surrounding control and power arise from participatory typologies, thus making it important to consider the underlying politics surrounding participation (ref). Whites (1996) typology of participation starts to deal with issues, and begins to consider the various stresses actors engaging in participation experience. Whites typology of participation is more complex. The framework used by White explores the many dimensions and interests involved within the process of participation (White, 1996). The identities, context and interests of both individuals and groups are also explored throughout the typologies (White, 1996). Whites typology of participation is separated into categories in which one can easily identify situations where opportunities are created, or power distributions are established (White, 1996). Whites framework is complex, thus is it important to note that participation itself is characterised as a dynamic process which does not remain constant (White, 1996). White suggests that circumstances of conflict and tension arise when one set of goals or ideas are prioritised over another, mirroring the power relations that underline the processes of participation (White, 1996). Whites framework of participation is divided into four types. The first of these is nominal category participation. Within this typology, participation is considered as a form of information sharing and participant contribution in a project. This form of participation is ideally functional in form, and acts to also legitimize external actors (Ref). Consultation is also highlighted in Whites typology within instrumental participation. In this form of participation, White suggests that consultation is practised and utilized by external parties to create efficiency (White, 1996). Citizens however, see this form of participation in terms of a cost, as their contribution to a programme results in a sense of lost opportunity for the citizens themselves (ref). In representative participation, White sees participations as active decision makers. This form of participation gives a voice to the participants, allowing them to influence the outcome of projects and promote sustainability (White, 1996). Active and dynamic participation ultimately leads to Whites last category: transformative participation. This form of participation sparks self mobilization, allowing participants to assertively find the solutions to their own problems (White, 1996). Overall Whites model is particularly useful in identifying the costs and benefits different groups of people experience with different forms of participation. There is however some limitations also associated with Whites conceptualization of participation. Ref has suggested that Upon analysis of the different typologies it is evident within the literature that Arnstein, Pretty and White have all contributed towards the concept of participation. The concept however, still remains largely unknown within the literature despite the contribution of these academics and more. Cornwall (2008) has suggested that because of this, participation has become embedded with an element of malleability, allowing it to mean different things to different people, in different places. The conceptual origins of participation have been rooted in a planning and political context. Ideas however, such as collective action, consultation and shared decision making have subsequently spilled over into an environmental management context. Natural resources are often at the centre of social tensions and conflict within communities. Such settings involve the presence of several actors all attempting to influence the many decisions associated with natural resource management (ref). The academic literature surrounding natural resources management has suggested that community members and stakeholders are often unable to contribute towards environmental decisions (Rowe and Frewer, 2000). Typically within natural resources management, scientists have primarily been identified as experts within the community, and have controlled the flow of information in the context of policy development (Jasanoff, 1994).This has been argued by some academics as problematic, suggesting that the views and opinions of the ordinary citizen may be influential for environmental management (Stirling, 2006). Cortner and Shannon (1993) has therefore, suggested that participation can be utilized as a vehicle to engage with public expression, and increase the transfer of knowledge and deliberative democracy (Stirling, 2008). Participation has been recognized as an important mechanism in achieving optimum environmental outcomes (Collins and Evans, 2002). Through participation, perspectives, v alues and opinions of different stakeholders and citizens can be identified and incorporated into environmental objectives (Cortner and Shannon, 1993). Participation within natural resource management can provide opportunities for stakeholder meetings and public consultations, increasing the scope of opportunity for non experts within the community to shape environmental decision making (Landy, 1993). Participation can therefore, be seen as a forum within which local knowledge, values and norms are integrated with conventional scientific knowledge. As illustrated above, the concept of participation is one that is malleable. Various forms of participation have been characterised by academics, leading one to believe that there is no one correct way of describing such a process. Several examples within the environmental literature highlight the malleability of participation. Increases in the adoption of local knowledge and collaborative management initiatives are all evidence of participatory methods in resource management. Kakadu National Park for instance is a primary example of where the integration of local knowledge in environmental management has been achieved through participatory methods (Hill and Press, 1993). During the 1960s a partnership was enacted between the indigenous community and non indigenous community of Australias Northern Territory to manage the Kakadu National Park. The area had been classified as a World Heritage site; therefore territorial environmental management objectives were promptly established to p rotect the areas archaeological heritage (Hough, 2009). Tension and conflict however arose when government officials attempted to solely manage the regions of the park. Approximately 50% of the park was within Aboriginal territory, therefore, local communities swiftly petitioned to become involved with the decision making process (Lane, 2001). The sustainable practices associated with the local Aboriginal communities, coupled with thousands of years of local knowledge led authorities to pursue joint management of the area (Hill and Press, 1993). Interchangeable and transferable knowledge from both scientists and the local communities were collated to establish management objectives for the native flora and fauna located within the regions of the park (Howitt, 2003). The national park today is managed by traditional Aboriginal members and the Australian National Director of Parks (Hill and Press, 2003). Participatory methods are also evident within New Zealand through collaborative management approaches. The Environmental Performance Indicator (EPI) project was established as New Zealands first indigenous sustainable monitoring programme (Jollands, 2006). Jollands and Harmsworth (2008) note that Maori people are an important community within New Zealand, owning both a considerable amount of the countrys resources, as well as holding a strong political standing in comparison to other ethnic groups. Various international and national obligations have driven the need for Maori participation in New Zealand environmental management (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Internationally, declarations such as the Draft Declaration of Rights for Indigenous People (United Nations, 1993) and the Declaration on the Health and Survival of Indigenous Peoples have driven the need to foster indigenous practices and beliefs (United Nations, 2002). Within New Zealand, internal drivers such as the Treaty o f Waitangi have also supported the recognition of indigenous rights (Jollands, 2006). The Treaty of Waitangi provides the foundation upon which bicultural ties and partnerships in New Zealand are established (Orange, 1990). The EPI project was established by the Ministry of Environment as a way of incorporating Maori knowledge into environmental monitoring. For many years, Maori people have had an intrinsic relationship with the natural environment (Barlow, 1991). As Harmsworth and Tipa (2005) note, Maori have had a specific perception on environmental management, consisting of stewardship and holism. Such a framework has assisted Maori people in developing interpretations of the environment that help facilitate their practices and beliefs surrounding environmental use, degradation and sustainability (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). The EPI project was conceived as an opportunity for Maori to contribute towards sustainable monitoring in a way that acknowledged their traditions and norms. A Maori Environmental Monitoring Group (MEMG) was introduced by the Ministry of Environment as a panel of Maori environmental experts. The members on this panel provided the EPI project leaders with information about Ma ori environmental perspectives, objectives and goals (Maori Environmental Monitoring Group, 1998). The MEMG were given the forum to contribute towards environmental decision making on issues such as wetland restoration, biodiversity and marine protection. Such a process allowed Maori people to move towards a more active role within environmental management, and allow them to influence the outcomes of the EPI project through a more collaborative approach (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Though participation can occur in a variety of forms as a mechanism for enabling social interaction within environmental decisions, some critics have argued against this (Rossi, 1997; Sanders, 1997; Collins and Evans, 2002; Campbell and Currie, 2006). Critics have questioned the capability of ordinary community members in comprehending complex scientific dilemmas (Sanders, 1997). Furthermore, others critics have also suggested that the term participation is often used to disguise practices in which citizens are simply briefed or consulted with (Sanders, 1997; Rossi, 1997). A fundamental limitation associated with the malleability of participation is that a false sense of citizen involvement can often be created through tokenism (Campbell and Currie, 2006). Specific groups of people, or member of an indigenous group for instance are purposely included around the environmental decision making table by politicians. Such an act appears to provide the image of fairness on the part of gove rnments or experts; however, in reality many of these representatives still remain uninfluential (Collins and Evan, 2002). The EPI project for instance ultimately received widespread criticism for its apparent attempts at tokenism (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Though a Maori panel was set up to inform the EPI directors on indigenous perspectives, the members of the MEMG were unable to take part in the final decision making stages (Clarkson et al., 2002). Furthermore, as Jollands and Harmsworth (2008) notes, in hindsight, Maori were also unable to fully comprehend the scientific components of the project, making their ability to actively take part in the projects efforts futile. Issues of tokenism and passive participation have been identified within some of the models analyzed above. Arnstein, Pretty and White all acknowledge that within the scope of participation there are varying levels of how active participation is. The malleability of participation therefore, serves more so as a limitation for the concept rather than a strength. Though the concept of participation has the ability and freedom to t ransform into a range of meanings, its lack of a concentrate definition can simply be used to describe any process involving people (Cornwall, 2008). Participation has been proven to occur within a variety of contexts and engage with several different groups of people. The issue however, is that active participation is not apparent in all of these situations. Consultation for instance has been disguised within many circumstances as a form of participation. Its use has been prevalent within environmental management especially as a way to engage with important stakeholders and interest groups. Consultation however, as demonstrated with the case of the EPI project, is simply another name to describe tokenism (Clarkson et al., 2002). The actual interests of citizens are ignored within programme objectives, yet such practices are accepted and continued because they are categorised under the heading of participation (Jollands, 2006). As Gardiner and Parata (1999) suggests, there was a severe lack of clarity regarding the EPI programme. The information presented to Maori at the consultation meetings was often disorganized and prepared in a manner that was insensitive to Maori world views and customs. Therefore it is not surprising that Maori communities were confused about the definition of natural indicators and the science used in western forms of environmental monitoring (Ministry for the Environment, 1998). The EPI programme had demonstrated some attempts to include Maori in environmental monitoring. Critics have generally suggested that the EPI programme was superficial because the MfE was not willing to hand over control over resources to the MEMG (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Due to such criticisms, the MfE had begun to reduce its focus to involve Maori in environmental monitoring. Much of the government and Ministrys efforts to include Maori and nurture indigenous monitoring methods had dissolved after the completion of the EPI programme (Downs and Clarkson, 2000). The EPI programme presented several issues that highlighted the initial difficulties of incorporating Maori in environmental monitoring. The MfE essentially set up the EPI programme with the intention of including a range of perspectives from important stakeholders. While its intentions were sound, the programme ultimately disallowed for the participation from other groups or individuals because EPI project leaders were unwilling to share power over resources, funding and decision making (Clarkson et al., 2002). The failures associated with the EPI programme can also be attributed to the principles under which the project was initiated. From the onset, western scientific notions and environmental thinking provided the basis for the programme. Therefore from the beginning issues in attempting to incorporate local knowledge should have been conceivable (Downs and Clarkson, 2000) Arnsteins Ladder is one of the first frameworks within the academic literature which characterises the different typologies of participation. Arnsteins typology of participation within a planning context provided an important pillar within the literature for characterising different stages of participation. Since Arnsteins framework, several other authors such Pretty and White have developed other various typologies to characterise participation. Upon evaluation it is clear that participation cannot be situated within one clear definition. Arnstein, Pretty and White all offer valuable interpretations for charactering participation. Like any framework, each of these authors typologies is limited by certain constraints. Arnsteins ladder has been criticised as being over simplistic and normative in nature. Prettys typology of participation is more detailed, and considers the interests of all the actors involved within the process of participation. Prettys framework however, consists of too many overlapping typologies, making it harder to distinguish between specific classifications of participation. Whites typology of participation . As Cornwall (2008) has suggested, the concept of participation is malleable, denoting itself to almost any form of social interaction between groups of people. Participation has been suggested within the environmental literature as an important mechanism for generating appropriate environmental outcomes. Participation within natural resource management however, has been used to mask instances of tokenism and passive participation. The malleability of participation is ultimately a hindrance. People can transform the definition of participation to describe a variety of social processes occurring within a society. A limitation to this however, is that the term can be applied to cover up processes such as tokenism and consultation, which are ultimately processes which promote non participation or passive participation.